diff --git a/fingp.tex b/fingp.tex index 5497544..6e6d933 100644 --- a/fingp.tex +++ b/fingp.tex @@ -11,16 +11,16 @@ \chapter{Finite groups} The orbit-stabilizer theorem \cref{sec:orbit-stabilizer-theorem} is at the basis of this analysis: if $G$ is a group and $X:\BG\to\Set$ is a $G$-set, then $$X(\shape_G)\simeq \coprod_{x:X/G}\mathcal O_x$$ and each orbit set $\mathcal O_x$ is equivalent to the cokernel of the inclusion $G_x\subseteq G$ of the stabilizer subgroup of $x$. -Consequently, if $X(\shape_G)$ is a finite set, then its cardinality is the sum of the cardinality of these cokernels. If also the set $\USym G$ is finite much more can be said and simple arithmetical considerations often allow us to deduce deep statements like the size of a certain subset of $X(\shape_G)$ and in particular whether or not there are any fixed points. +Consequently, if $X(\shape_G)$ is a finite set, then its cardinality is the sum of the cardinality of these cokernels. If also the set $\USymG$ is finite much more can be said and simple arithmetical considerations often allow us to deduce deep statements like the size of a certain subset of $X(\shape_G)$ and in particular whether or not there are any fixed points. \begin{example} A typical application could go like this. -If $X(\shape_G)$ is a finite set with $13$ elements and for some reason we know that all the orbits have cardinalities dividing $8$ -- which we'll see happens if $\USym G$ has $8$ elements -- then we must have that some orbits are singletons (for a sum of positive integers dividing $8$ to add up to $13$, some of them must be $1$). +If $X(\shape_G)$ is a finite set with $13$ elements and for some reason we know that all the orbits have cardinalities dividing $8$ -- which we'll see happens if $\USymG$ has $8$ elements -- then we must have that some orbits are singletons (for a sum of positive integers dividing $8$ to add up to $13$, some of them must be $1$). That is, $X$ has fixed points. \end{example} The classical theory of finite groups is all about symmetries coupled with simple counting arguments. -Lagrange's \cref{thm:lagrange} gives the first example: if $H$ is a subgroup of $G$, then the cardinality ``$|G|$'' of $\USym G$ is divisible by $|H|$, putting severe restrictions on the possible subgroups. For instance, if $|G|$ is a prime number, then $G$ has no nontrivial proper subgroups! (actually, $G$ is necessarily a cyclic group). To prove this result we interpret $G$ as an $H$-set. +Lagrange's \cref{thm:lagrange} gives the first example: if $H$ is a subgroup of $G$, then the cardinality ``$|G|$'' of $\USymG$ is divisible by $|H|$, putting severe restrictions on the possible subgroups. For instance, if $|G|$ is a prime number, then $G$ has no nontrivial proper subgroups! (actually, $G$ is necessarily a cyclic group). To prove this result we interpret $G$ as an $H$-set. Further examples come from considering the $G$-set $\typesubgroup_G$ of subgroups of $G$ from \cref{sec:subgroups}. Knowledge about the $G$-set of subgroups is of vital importance for many applications and Sylow's theorems in \cref{sec:sylow} give the first restriction on what subgroups are possible and how they can interact. The first step is Cauchy's \cref{thm:cauchys} which says that if $|G|$ is divisible by a prime $p$, then $G$ contains a cyclic subgroup of order $p$. Sylow's theorems goes further, analyzing subgroups that have cardinality powers of $p$, culminating in very detailed and useful information about the structure of the subgroups with cardinality the maximal possible power of $p$. @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ \section{Lagrange's theorem, counting version} We start our investigation by giving the version of Lagrange's theorem which has to do with counting, but first we pin down some language. \begin{definition} \label{def:finitegrd} -A \emph{finite group}\index{finite group} is a group such that the set $\USym G$ is finite. If $G$ is a finite group, then the \emph{\gporder}\index{\gporder} $|G|$ is the cardinality of the finite set $\USymG$ (\ie $\USymG:\conncomp\FinSet{|G|}$). +A \emph{finite group}\index{finite group} is a group such that the set $\USymG$ is finite. If $G$ is a finite group, then the \emph{\gporder}\index{\gporder} $|G|$ is the cardinality of the finite set $\USymG$ (\ie $\USymG:\conncomp\FinSet{|G|}$). \end{definition} \begin{example} The trivial group has \gporder $1$, the cyclic group $C_n$ of order $n$ has \gporder $n$ %(which is good) @@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ \section{Lagrange's theorem, counting version} If $|H|=|G|$, then $H=G$ (as subgroups of $G$). \end{lemma} \begin{proof} - Consider the $H$ action of $H$ on $G$, \ie the $H$-set $i^*G:\BH\to\Set$ with $i^*G(x)\defequi(\shape_G=\Bi(x))$, so that $G/H$ is just another name for the orbits $i^*G/H\defequi \sum_{x:\BH}i^*G(x)$. Note that composing with the structure identity $p_i:\shape_G=\Bi(\shape_H)$ gives an equivalence $i^*G(\shape_H)\equiv \USym G$, so that $|i^*G(\shape_H)|= |G|$. + Consider the $H$ action of $H$ on $G$, \ie the $H$-set $i^*G:\BH\to\Set$ with $i^*G(x)\defequi(\shape_G=\Bi(x))$, so that $G/H$ is just another name for the orbits $i^*G/H\defequi \sum_{x:\BH}i^*G(x)$. Note that composing with the structure identity $p_i:\shape_G=\Bi(\shape_H)$ gives an equivalence $i^*G(\shape_H)\equiv \USymG$, so that $|i^*G(\shape_H)|= |G|$. Lagrange's \cref{thm:lagrange} says that $i^*G$ is a free $H$-set \footnote{\cref{thm:lagrange} doesn't say this at present: fix it} and so all orbits $\mathcal O_x$ are equivalent to the $H$-set $\tilde H(x)=(\shape_H=x$). Consequently, the equivalence @@ -134,34 +134,34 @@ \section{Cauchy's theorem} Informally, $\B\CG_p$ consists of pairs $(S,j)$, where $S$ is a set of cardinality $p$ and $j:S\eqto S$ is a cyclic permutation in the sense that for $0